Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy

Accuracy is the degree to which the measured value of the quality characteristic agrees with the true value. the difference between the measured value and the true value is known as the error of measurement. A practical difficulty in judging accuracy is that the method employed to determine the true value should be a method of high precision. It is practically difficult to measure exactly the true value and that is why a set of observations is made whose mean is taken to be the true value of the quality measured.

Hence Accuracy is defined as "The closeness of mean value to the true value."

The Mean chart helps to maintain the accuracy of data.

Precision

Precision is the degree which determines how well identically performed measurements agree with each other. Precision carries no meaning for only one measurement. It exists when repeated measurements are made on a single quality characteristic of one particular article, under identical conditions. In such a set, the observations will scatter about the mean. The less this scattering, more precise is the measurement.

Hence Precision is defined as "The closeness of individual values to each other."

The Run chart helps to maintain the precision of the data.

Specifications and Tolerances

Specifications

Specification is the definition of design. The design remains a concept in the mind of the designer until he defines it through verbal description, sample, drawing, writing etc. It defines in advance what the manufacturer expects to make. It defines what the consumer can expect to get. The specification serves as an agreement between manufacturer and consumer on the nature of characteristics of the product.

It is helpful to recognize the distinction between a design specification and on inspection specification. The design specification deals with what is desired in a manufactured article i.e. It deals with the specification function. In contrast, the inspection specification deals with the means of judging whether what is desired is actually attained, in other words it deals with inspection function(quality of conformance)

Tolerances

It is practically impossible to manufacture one article exactly like another or one batch like another. Variability is one of the fundamental concepts of modern quality control. Therefore, the ranges of permissible difference in dimensions have been standardized under the working limits. The limits of size for a dimension or a part are two extreme permissible sizes for that dimension (high limit and low limit). 

Hence

"The difference between the high limit and the low limit which is the margin allowed for variation in workmanship is called tolerance."

Tolerance can also be defined as 

"The amount by which the job is allowed to go away from accuracy and perfectness without causing any functional trouble, when assembled with the mating part and put into actual service."

Tolerances are set not only on dimensions, but also on other quality characteristics as well, such as temperature, pressure and volume.

The selection of tolerances is very important. A common complaint among production personnel is that designers do not understand production problems. Inspection personnel often complain not only about the poor quality of manufactured product but also about the unreasonableness of specified tolerances.

Therefore, the designers may specify one tolerance; inspection gauge may allow another usually wider tolerance and the foreman may be even more liberal. Each of these three parties views the operation from a different view points.  

Sampling Inspection

A sample may be defined as the number of items drawn from a lot, batch or population for inspection purpose.

Sampling inspection can be defined as a technique to determine the acceptance or rejection of a lot or population on the basis of number of defective parts found in a random sample drawn from the lot. If the number of defective items doesn't exceed a predefined level, the lot is accepted, otherwise it is rejected.

e.g. Purchasing wheat, rice or such other food grains we naturally take a handful of grains to judge its quality for taking purchasing decisions.

Similarly in engineering sampling inspection is preferred because it is more practical, quick and economical as compared to 100% inspection.

Advantages of Sampling Inspection

1. The cost and time required for sampling inspection is quite less as compared to 100% inspection.
2. Problem of inspection fatigue which occurs in 100% inspection is eliminated.
3. Smaller inspection staff is necessary.
4. Less damage to products because only few items are subjected to handling during inspection.
5. The problem of monotony and inspector error introduced by 100% inspection is minimized.
6. The most important advantage of sampling inspection is that, it exerts more effective pressure on quality improvement. Since the rejection of entire lot on the basis of sampling brings much stronger pressure on quality improvement that the rejection of individual articles.

Limitations of Sampling Inspection

1. Risk of making wrong decisions; 

Sample is not exact picture of lot, hence there will be chance of making wrong decisions. 

A really good lot(less proportion of defective than specified) may be rejected because of bad sample. In this case producer suffer the risk of reworking or in house failure of his product.

A really bad lot (greater proportion of defective than specified) may be accepted because of good sample drawn. In this case consumer suffer the risk of accepting a bad lot and it is called consumer's risk. 

2. Sample usually provides less information about the product than 100% inspection.

3. Some extra planning and documentation is necessary.

Success of sampling depends upon

1. Randomness of samples
2. Sample size
3. Quality characteristics to be tested
4. Acceptance criteria
5. Lot Size

7 Steps to Strategic Quality Planning

There are seven basic steps to strategic quality planning. The process starts with the principle that quality and customer and customer satisfaction are the center of an organization's future. It brings together all the key stake holders.

1. Customer Needs

The first step is to discover the future needs of the customer.

• Who will they be? 
• Will your customer base change?
• What will they want? 
• How will the organization meet and exceed expectations of customer?

2. Customer Positioning

The planners determine where the organizations wants to be in relation to the customers. 

Do they want to retain, reduce, or expand the customer base?

Products or services with poor quality performance should be targeted for break-through or eliminated. The organization needs to concentrate its effort on areas of excellence.

3. Predict the Future

Rate of change is continuously changing, hence the planners must be able to predict the future conditions that will affect their product or service. Demographic, economic, forecasts,and technical assessments or projections are tools that help predict the future.

4. Gap Analysis

This step requires the planners to identify the gaps between the current state and the future state of the organization. Statistical analysis, brainstorming are the tools for future predictions and gap identification, can be used.

5. Closing the Gap

By establishing goals and responsibilities are necessary to fill the gap.

6. Alignment

As the plan is developed, it must be aligned with the mission, vision and core values and concepts of the organization.

7. Implementation 

This step is the most difficult step in strategic planning. Resources must be collecting data, designing, changes, and overcoming resistance to change. Also part of this step is the monitoring activity to ensure that progress is being made. The planning group should meet at least once a year to assess progress and take any corrective action.

Strategic planning can be performed by any organization. It can be highly effective, allowing organizations to do the right thing at the right time, every time.

9 obstacles in implementation of TQM

Many organizations, especially small ones with a niche, are comfortable with their current state. They are satisfied with the amount of work being performed, the profits realized and the perception that the customers are satisfied. Organizations with this culture will see little need for TQM until they begin to lose market share.

Robert J. Masters after an extensive research mention 9 obstacles in implementation of TQM in the organization. The obstacles are given as below 

1. Lack of management commitment

In order for any organizational effort to succeed, there must be a substantial management commitment of management time and organizational resources. The purpose must be clearly and continuously communicated to all personnel management must consistently apply the principle of TQM.

2. Inability to change organizational culture

Changing an organization's culture is difficult and will require as much as five years. Individuals resist change--they become habituated to doing a particular process and it becomes the preferred way. Management must understand and utilize the basic concepts of change. They are;

1. People change when they want to and to meet their own needs
2. Never expect anyone to engage in behaviour that serves the organization's values unless adequate reason(why) has been given.
3. For change to be accepted, people must be moved from a state of fear to trust.

It is difficult for individuals to change their way of doing things; It is much more difficult for an organization to make cultural change. Organization that spend more planning for the cultural aspects of implementing a TQM program will improve their chance of success.

e.g. concern to India, Chandigarh is the first smoke free city of India, this is the cultural change.

3. Improper planning

All constituents of the organization must be involved in the development of the implementation plan and any modifications that occur as the plan evolves. The Two-way communication of ideas is the matter of great importance and should be taken by all personnel during the development of the plan and its implementation. Customer satisfaction should be the goal rather than financial or sales goals.

4. Lack of continuous training and education

Training and education is an ongoing process for everyone in the organization. Needs must be determined and a plan developed to achieve those needs. Training and education are most effective, when senior management conducts the training on the principles of TQM. External trainer can be hired for communicating the TQM effort to all personnel on a continual basis. Lack of training in group discussion and communication techniques, quality improvement skills, problem identification, and the problem-solving method was the second most important obstacle.

5. Incompatible organizational structure and isolated individuals and departments

Difference between departments and individuals can create implementation problems. The use of multifunctional teams will help to break down long-standing barriers. Restructuring to make the organization more response to customer needs may be needed. Individuals who do not embrace the new philosophy can be required to leave the organization.

6. Ineffective measurement techniques and lack of access to data and results

Key characteristics of the organization should be measured for effective decision making. To improve a process are you need to measure the effect of improvement ideas. Access to data and quick retrieval is necessary for effective processes. Find the root cause, correct the problem and eliminate the root cause to prevent recurrence of the problem.

7. Paying inadequate attention to internal and external customers

Organizations need to understand the changing needs and expectations of their customers. Effective feedback mechanism that provide data for decision making are necessary for this understanding. Give the right people (who are directly working on the product) direct access to the customers. When an organization fails to empower individuals and teams, it can't hold them responsible for producing results.

8. Inadequate use of empowerment and team work

Teams need to have the proper training and at least in the beginning by a facilitator. Individuals should be empowered to make decisions that affect the efficiency of their process or the satisfaction of their customer.

9. Failure to continuously improve

It is tempting to sit back and rest on your laurels. However, a lack of continuous improvement of the process, product and service will even leave the leader of the pack in the dust. 

Will Rogers said it very best

"Even if you are on the right track, you'll get run over if you just sit there." 

Who is the customer?

There are two distinct types of customers --- External or Internal. An external customer can be defined in many ways, such as 

• The one who uses the product or service 
• The one who purchases the product or service
• The one who influences the sale of the product or service

For instance, McDonald determined the customer to be the child when they introduced their Happy Meals. The child never paid for the meals but the child influences the sale. Oftentimes, the identification of the external customer is not always easy.

Let us understand the External and Internal Customer

External Customer

An external customer exists outside the organization and generally fall into three categories.

1. Current 
2. Prospective
3. Lost Customers

Each category provides valuable customer satisfaction information for the organization . Every employee in the organization  must know how their job enhances the total satisfaction of the external customer. Performance must be continuously improved in order to retain existing customers and to gain new ones.

Internal Customer

An internal customer is just as important. Every function, whether it be engineering, order processing , or production has an internal customer--- each receives a product or service and in exchange, provides a product or service. Every person in a process is considered a customer of the preceding operation. Each worker's goal is to make sure that quality meets the expectations of the next person. When that happens throughout the manufacturing, sales, and distribution chain, the satisfaction of the external customer should be assured.

One basic concept of TQM is an unwavering focus on customers, both internal and external. Most employees know about the external customer or end user but may not think of other employees as internal customers of their output. 

In an ideal organization, every employee would have direct contact with customers and be effective at meeting their needs. But the reality is that most employees are shielded from customers by organization layers. For example, the first line supervisor in a computer factory may never speak with the business person who buys and depends on the organization's product. However, that supervisor and countless other employees who lack direct content must still contribute to the business person's satisfaction.

Three basic questions that must be asked to internal customers

1. What do you need from me?
2. What do you do with my output?
3. Are there any gaps between what you need and what you get?

Hence to achieve the satisfaction of external customer, employees of an organization must learn to satisfy their internal customers.

Traits of Quality Leaders

Leadership is always an important characteristics for the quality professionals. Here 12 significant traits of quality leaders are given.

1. Attention to external and internal customers and their needs

Leaders place themselves in the customers' shoes and service their needs from that perspective. They continually evaluate the customers' changing requirements.

2. Empower, rather than control, subordinates

Leaders have trust and confidence in the performance of their subordinates. They provide the resources, training and work environment to help subordinates do their jobs. However, the decision to accept responsibility lies with the individual

3. Emphasize improvement rather than maintenance

Leaders use the phrase "If it is not perfect, improve it" rather than "Throw it, if it is not fixed." There is always room for improvement, even if the improvement is small. Major break through sometimes happen, but it's the little ones that keep the continuous process improvement on a positive track.

4. Emphasize prevention

"An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure" certainly true. Another truth is that "Perfection can be the enemy of creativity". We can't always wait until we have creates the perfect process or product. There must be a balance between preventing problems and developing better, but not perfect processes.

5. Encourage collaboration rather than competition

When functional areas, departments or work groups are in competition, they may find subtle ways of working against each other or withholding information. Instead, there must be collaboration among and within units.

6. Train and coach, rather than direct and supervise

Leaders know that the development of the human resource is necessity. As coaches, they help their subordinate learn to do a better job.

7. Learn from problems

When a problem exists, it is treated as an opportunity rather than something to be minimized or covered up. "What caused it? and "How can we prevent it in the future?" are the questions quality leaders ask.

8. Continually try to improve communications

Leaders continually spread information about the TQM effort. They make it evident that TQM is not just a slogan. Communication is two way - ideas will be generated by people when leaders encourage them and act upon them.

9. Continually demonstrate their commitment to quality

Leaders walk their talk - their actions, rather than their words, communicate their level of commitment. They let the quality statements be their decision making guide.

10. Choose suppliers on the basis of quality, not price

Suppliers are encouraged to participate on project teams and become involved. Leaders know that quality begins with quality materials and true measure is the life-cycle cost.

11. Establish organizational systems to support the quality effort

At the senior management level a quality council is provided and at the first-line supervisor level, work groups and project teams are organized to improve the process.

12. Encourage and recognize team effort

They encourage, provide recognition and reward individuals and teams, leaders know that people like to know that their contributions are appreciated and important. This trait is one of the most powerful trait a quality leader must have. 

KAIZEN; Continuous improvement in small steps

KAIZEN

KAIZEN is a Japanese word KAI and ZEN. KAI means change and ZEN means better. Hence implies change for better or improve continuously.

Continuous improvement implies

Consistently, Every time, Every step, and Everyplace leading to self improvement

"If you are content with the best you have done, you will never do the best you can do."

Continuous improvement is a program, a philosophy and a strategy to improve the quality of goods and services of an organization. Everything deteriorates with use. Maintenance programs check the inevitable decline, but don't improve processes. KAIZEN involves process changes. Renewal of a process can result in a major improvement in performance.

KAIZEN is a systematic approach which focus on process improvement. KAIZEN is not a result oriented approach.

The major mistake while implementation of KAIZEN is focus on result rather to focus on the process.

KAIZEN Pillars

The pillars of KAIZEN are teamwork like QC circle and competence in problem solving like PDSA cycle. PDSA cycle refers to Plan-Do-Study-ACT.

KAIZEN Focuses

• Reducing non value added activities.
• Waste reduction
• Principles of motion study
• Principles of material handling
• Documentation and improvement in standard operating procedure
• Visual management
• Just in time principles
• Prevention of errors (POKA-YOKE)
• Team dynamics including problem solving, communication skills, and conflict resolution.

Success Mantra of KAIZEN

1. KAIZEN should be used as process based approach. If it used as result oriented approach it gives a failure. Make small changes in the process for that it is necessary to understand the process to make change in the process for getting the better result in response of process change
2. Before implementation of KAIZEN it is necessary to spread awareness of KAIZEN implementation among the employees. To implement KAIZEN the supervisory staff and the front line employees must be trained on KAIZEN techniques, objective and benefits.
3. KAIZEN should be implemented by teams. Make the QC Circle teams in which the employees participate voluntarily. In teams employees motivate each other, brainstorm to kill the problem, use best available techniques to implement KAIZEN.
4. SPC is necessary part of KAIZEN. All employees who are taking part in the KAIZEN must learn basic statistical concept of SPC to control the variation of the process.
5. Training of systematic or fundamental problem solving techniques is necessary for the employee. 7QC Tools are considered as the fundamental problem solving techniques like Process flow chart, Check Sheet, Histogram, Pareto Chart, Scatter Chart, Fishbone diagram, and Control Chart. "95% problems at workplace can be solved using these tools.".........Prof. Kaoru Ishikawa
6. Communication is another mantra for success of KAIZEN. Visuals at workplace, verbal, and non-verbal communication play an important role in success of KAIZEN. Training of all employees should be in local language.
7. Reward and Recognition are another factors responsible for the success of KAIZEN. These serve the motivation to the winner along with coworkers. Choose the best KAIZEN champion of the week, month, and quarter and award for his achievement.
8. Let the employees free to choose their problem by their own. This way most of the problem will come into the picture and the move to solve the problem could be taken. 
9. Rid out the pre-conception. Like; This can't be done, This can't be implemented, I have done everything what I have required, KAIZEN can't be implemented at this place, etc...... All these types of conceptions are big hurdles to implement KAIZEN at workplace. 

Remember one thing 

"You are not failed until you actually failed."

KAIZEN is a team based process oriented approach,hence don't think about the result just make an effort to improve from the previous stage.

KAIZEN can be best learnt from the Ants, always working in teams and complete the big task in small parts. 

KAIZEN is an endless Journery